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Trauer, Patriotismus und Entertainment. Das »National September 11 Memorial & Museum« in New York
(2016)
Downtown Manhattan, 15. Mai 2014: Mit einer würdevollen Feierstunde eröffnen Michael Bloomberg und Barack Obama – in Anwesenheit der nationalen und lokalen Politprominenz, von Überlebenden, Ersthelfern und Angehörigen der Opfer der Anschläge – das National September 11 Memorial Museum. Der Name der Institution am ehemaligen Standort des World Trade Centers (WTC) ist Programm: Sie soll zugleich Gedenkort und Museum sein. Die gemeinnützige Stiftung, die unter dem Vorsitz des ehemaligen New Yorker Bürgermeisters Bloomberg und der Leitung des Managers und Juristen Joe Daniels die Einrichtung verantwortet, hat es sich zum Ziel gesetzt, diese zentralen erinnerungskulturellen Aufgaben an einem Ort zu vereinen. Hier soll der Toten und der Überlebenden der Anschläge gedacht und an die Ersthelfer erinnert werden, die in den USA als Helden gelten. Die Institution richtet sich an eine breite Öffentlichkeit und soll diese auch historisch-politisch über die Auswirkungen des Terrorismus informieren.
As much as war is about armed military conflict, it is also fundamentally about mass displacement, broken lives, and lost futures. This simple truth has become way too obvious in large parts of Poland, where providing food, clothes and shelter to strangers, and collecting donations to help refugees from neighboring Ukraine have become common practices among “ordinary” people. Much of the efforts of this grassroots mass mobilization to help those escaping their war-torn country falls on the shoulders of various parts of society, including individual activists and non-activists as well as civil society organizations.
What is perhaps less visible in this civil society mobilization and its media coverage are the efforts of migrant and minority communities that do their share in offering relief to those fleeing from Ukraine.
It would be easy to presume that the Universal Declaration of Human Rights had always been a symbol of opposition and dissent in the German Democratic Republic. Passed by the United Nations General Assembly on December 10, 1948, the UDHR contained a number of provisions that contradicted the political and social order of the GDR as run by the Socialist Unity Party (SED). It demanded an independent judiciary, prohibited arbitrary arrest and invasion of privacy, and guaranteed the right to leave one’s own country. In East Germany, where the judiciary was firmly an ideological organ, the Stasi regularly conducted mass surveillance and arbitrary detention and those seeking to leave the country illegally were shot at the border, this would seem to be a document seen to be inherently hostile to SED rule. Even the social rights contained in the UDHR, in particular the right to strike, were contrary to the legal realities of East Germany where citizens could not demand rights from the state that would obstruct the will of the party.
Yet over the course of East Germany’s existence, the Universal Declaration was more likely to be invoked by the SED than by its domestic opponents. The SED came to view the Universal Declaration and the UN human rights system as a whole as an ally to the Socialist Bloc and the contents of the UDHR reflected in the achievements of socialism within the borders of the GDR. For decades this was not challenged by East Germans on a mass scale, until very suddenly in the late 1980s, human rights and the UDHR became symbols of the democratic opposition. This article will trace the trajectory of the UDHR in East German public discourse from its passage in 1948 and the reaction by the SED in the Soviet Occupied Zone, through the commemorations of the UDHR on its many anniversaries before the ultimate collapse of SED in 1989.
My Road to Berlin, or Mein Weg nach Berlin, presents a Willy Brandt that confounds a present-day reader’s expectations. While the 1960 autobiography of the then-mayor of West Berlin links his career with the familiar story of democracy’s development in Germany, this work nevertheless retains an unexpected edge. In one surprising scene, the mayor denounces his East Berlin SED counterparts as a ›Communist foreign legion‹ whom ›the citizens of my city had decisively defeated‹ during the Second Berlin Crisis of 1958 (p. 17). In the book, Brandt comes off as a Cold Warrior of steely determination rather than a Brückenbauer bridging ideological divides. Far from being out of character, however, My Road to Berlin captures Brandt at a pivotal moment in his career, when he sought to offer himself to both West German voters and a global public as a viable alternative to Konrad Adenauer.
How will Russia’s war of aggression in Ukraine end? What kinds of political scenarios could stop the suffering and bring stability to the region? Of all the different future scenarios none is particularly encouraging. In particular, the prospect of a ›Finlandized‹ Ukraine has met with near universal rejection. Yet, ever since Russia’s illegal annexation of the Crimea, ›Finlandization‹ of Ukraine has been discussed as a potential solution.
Milton Friedman hung up the phone in disgruntlement. The most influential economist of the postwar era had just called three different banks, one in Chicago and then two in New York, in order to initiate a financial transaction. He wanted to sell short $300,000 in pound sterling. Short selling is a technique for speculating on falling prices. Initially, speculators can only speculate on rising prices: they buy something and hope that it gains value, so that they can sell it at a profit. If the price for this asset goes down instead, the speculator incurs a loss when he resells it. So in order to profit from falling prices, speculators need to sell first and buy later – which is indeed possible if what is sold now is in fact only to be delivered a few weeks later. If the speculator is right and prices fall in the interim, he can buy cheap just before delivery is due and thus profit from having already sold what, at the time, he had not yet owned.
Picture agencies are mediators between photographers and editorial staffs; they play a crucial role in producing mass media visibility. However, their part in the system of the visual propaganda of the Nazi state is largely unexplored. This article features a controversial case, the American Associated Press and its German subsidiary. By submitting to the Schriftleitergesetz (Editorial Control Law) in 1935, the German AP GmbH (LLC) followed its German counterparts in the process of Gleichschaltung (forcible coordination). Until the United States entered the war in December 1941, AP supplied the Nazi press with American pictures. This service proved to be of particular relevance for propaganda. AP was also allowed to continue its photographic reporting in the Reich. AP pictures taken under the aegis of the Propaganda Ministry, the Wehrmacht and the SS were ubiquitous in the Nazi press. Moreover, the New York headquarters supplied the North American press with these same pictures, where they were published either as news photos or as propaganda images.
Dass der Angeklagte dem Gerichtsreporter sympathisch gewesen wäre, kann man kaum behaupten. Der Delinquent, so notierte Ilja Ehrenburg während des ersten Nürnberger Prozesses, sei »ein übler Komödiant«, »gleicht einem alten Weib, und seine Kopfhörer sehen wie ein Kopftuch aus. Er spielt die Rolle des gutmütigen Onkels, der zufällig eine Million Menschen ermordet hat.« Als sowjetischer Berichterstatter entsprach es schwerlich Ehrenburgs Selbstverständnis, die Angeklagten in ein freundliches Licht zu setzen, und für den weithin – nicht zuletzt von sich selbst – als Anführer der verbliebenen Regimespitze wahrgenommenen Hermann Göring galt dies ganz besonders. Doch während andere Prozessbeobachter die nach Abschminken, Drogenentzug und Gewichtsverlust wiedergewonnene, maskuline Statur des Reichsmarschalls a.D. betonten, bemühte sich Ehrenburg nach Kräften, ein effeminiertes Bild zu zeichnen und Göring lächerlich zu machen. Das Kopftuch passte da ins Bild – irritierend war allenfalls, dass ausgerechnet ein Kopfhörer diesen Eindruck vermitteln sollte. Weder sah das im Nürnberger Justizpalast verwendete, metallene Gerät so aus, noch wollte es mit seiner Verwendung in Militär und Nachrichtentechnik so recht zum Anliegen des Journalisten passen.
In den über 60 Jahren, die seit den Ereignissen bei Stalingrad von 1942/43 vergangen sind, ist das Geschehen in den Erinnerungskulturen zahlreicher Länder immer wieder neu entworfen, umgewandelt und mit unterschiedlichen Deutungsebenen verknüpft worden. Die Muster der Erinnerung waren und sind eng verbunden mit den gesellschaftlichen Verhältnissen und Bedürfnissen zum Zeitpunkt ihrer Verbreitung, und sie standen bzw. stehen noch immer in einem gespannten Verhältnis zu wissenschaftlichen Erkenntnissen über „Stalingrad“: So ging der Krieg für die Deutschen bereits im Winter 1941 verloren, und es folgten für Deutschland verlustreichere Kriegsphasen. Dass „Stalingrad“ in der deutschen und sowjetischen Erinnerungskultur bis heute eine herausragende Bedeutung einnimmt, steht dazu in offensichtlichem Widerspruch und kann nur gedächtnisgeschichtlich erklärt werden.